Guaranteed for Life

Today, most products are either disposable or come with a limited warranty, unless of course an extended warranty is bought at additional cost.

But, did you know that there's a U.S. made product that comes with the promise It works or we fix it free™ ?

Like ourselves, it might have surprised you to learn that the product is a metal lighter called Zippo® made in Bradford, PA, where a museum is dedicated to it. The guarantee has come with the lighter since its invention in the early 1930s.

Zippo Manufacturing Company has been in the same PA location since 1932. Several years ago, the company manufactured its 600,000,000 lighter. Bradford is home to the Zippo/Case Museum, the only place in the world to find a complete selection of Zippo and Case knife products. (W.R. Case & Sons Cutlery Company is an American manufacturer of hand-crafted knives based in Bradford since 1905. The company was acquired by Zippo Manufacturing Company in 1993.) 

The U.S. flag behind us is composed entirely of 3,393 Zippo lighters

Our visit to the Zippo Museum was unexpected as we were driving to Warren, PA, to meet-up with a fellow blogger. After seeing a highway billboard, we backtracked to locate the museum, which was still open.

In over 90 years, no one has ever spent money on the mechanical repair of a Zippo pocket lighter regardless of its age or condition. Even though there are fewer folks smoking today, this lighter has become part of the American culture. It's remained a global icon for durability and reliability over decades, especially in war time.. 

Loyal owners have credited a Zippo® lighter with saving them from danger or even saving their lives in the darkest situations. Lighters have been mangled, swallowed by fish, drowned for years and then found again. The fact that a Zippo lighter works for years or it's fixed free of charge has generated letters from owners sharing their experiences.

The Zippo Back Story

George Blaisdell, Zipo inventor

The start the lighter's history dates to 1932 when George G. Blaisdell watched a friend struggle to use an Austrian-made lighter one-handed. He saw that while the lighter worked well in the wind due to its unique chimney design, it was difficult to use and required two hands and the thin metal surface was easily dented. The friend said he dismissed the difficulties as the lighter worked well in windy conditions.

Blaisdell, an inventor, worked in the Blaisdell Machinery Company, a family business, in Bradford, PA. In late 1932, he decided out to reconstruct the Austrian lighter into an easier to use lighter. After ordering samples and obtaining U.S. distribution rights, Blaisdell redesigned the lighter case, refined the windproof chimney and attached a hinged lid easily used with one hand. The name came about because Blaisdell liked the sound of the word zipper. After forming variations of the word settled on Zippo, which he felt had a modern sound.

First Zippo factory in Bradford, PA

The company started business over a garage on Boylston Street with 3 people, including Blaisdell who managed sales. In January 1933, the first Zippo® pocket lighter was produced. The application for the original Zippo® patent was filed in May 1934 and was granted in March 1936. While manufacturing standards have changed since then, the lighters are manufactured to the same exacting standards.

Early Zippo lighter factory

Blaisdell was determined to create an affordable lighter that was windproof and guaranteed to always work. He did both and in 1933, the first pocket lighter was marketed and sold for $1.95, backed by the now famous and unconditional lifetime guarantee. The application for the original Zippo® patent was filed in May 1934 and  was granted in March 1936. 

In the mid-1930s, the company's first major sales boost came when an Iowa insurance company ordered 200 engraved lighters as contest prizes for its sales staff. Shortly after, Kendall Refining Company, another Bradford, PA company, placed an order for 500 lighters as gifts for employees and customers and emblazoned with the oil company logo. These lighters believed to be the first company-advertised lighters produced by Zippo® have become highly-prized collectibles.

The Zippo® lighter's national advertising began in 1937 with a Christmas season ad in Esquire magazine.

By the 1940s, the lighter was so popular that Blaisdell bought a larger building on Barbour St in Bradford, PA. The factory was in the back and the office in front. Throughout the 1940s, the company acquired several more buildings and was able to build the factory across the street and use the original building for office space.

World War II Affected Production

In 1941, after the U.S. entered the war, Zippo Manufacturing Company dedicated all production to the military and ceased production of lighters for consumer markets from 1942 to 1945. When the government requisitioned all brass for wartime efforts, this led to production of the steel-case Zippo® lighter covered with black paint then baked to a crackle finish to prevent rusting. 

During WWII Zippo produced lighters exclusively for the U.S. military

Millions of U.S. military personnel carried the lighter, a significant factor that soon established the lighter as an icon worldwide. Supplying the military market resulted in full production for the PA plant which in turn, which made the company financially stable.

During the war, Blaisdell kept in contact with war correspondent Ernie Pyle, who wrote feature columns for Scripps-Howard Newspapers. Pyle lived the war next to soldiers in the trenches and sailors heading for sea battle and coined the phrase GI Joe. Blaisdell sent Pyle 50 to 100 lighters monthly to distribute among the GIs. The two men exchanged letters during the war years until Pyle was killed by a Japanese sniper in 1945.

War correspondent Ernie Pyle distributed Zippo lighters in WW II

In 1945, when the war ended, Zippo Manufacturing returned to producing and selling lighters for the consumer market. In its first 10 years, the company produced over 1 million lighters, by 1947, production had reached the 10 million mark. Today, service members buy the lighters as personal items, not as government-issued equipment, at military post exchange (PX) stores. 

The Zippo Advertising Story

One of Blaisdell's most popular advertising promotions was the Zippo Car. In 1947, he bought a Chrysler Saratoga and had it customized to promote sales The car had giant lighter doors with lids that opened and closed and a neon flame when the top was opened. The Zippo car led parades in all then 48 states. 

Original Zippo Lighter car in the 1950s

In the 1950s, the Zippo Car traveled cross-country advertising the lighter with the lifetime guarantee. Then in the early 1970s, the car disappeared from a Pittsburgh mechanic shop after the shop had closed. To this day, its disappearance remains an unsolved mystery. The company purchased a Chrysler New Yorker in 1996 and began modifications based on archival photos of the original. The replica which debuted in Bradford, PA, is often seen at festivals, trade shows and sporting events.

1950s point of purchase counter top display

Beginning in the mid-1950s, date codes were stamped on the bottom of every Zippo® lighter. Although the original purpose was for quality control, these codes have become an invaluable tool for collectors.

A Zippo lighter found in a fish stomach made national news

In 1961, a story provided a real-life advertisement for the brand after a fisherman caught an 18-pound Northern Pike in Three Mile Bay, NY. When cleaning the fish, a Zippo® lighter was found in its stomach. Not only was it in perfect condition, but it lit on the first attempt. Zippo® used this story in advertisements to highlight the lighter's durability and reliability. 

In 1950, Zippo® was issued a second patent. Today, the design of the lighter remains basically the same with minor improvements. Starting in the mid-1950’s, date codes were stamped on the bottom of every lighter. The original purpose was for quality control, but these codes have become an invaluable tool for collectors.

The lighters have become a symbol of American culture featured in Hollywood films, Broadway and the music industry as well as advertisements. Over the years, the lighter has been featured in over 2,000 movies, stage plays and TV shows and been featured in such diverse productions as I Love Lucy, The X-Men and Hairspray – the Musical. Also, the famous Zippo® “click” sound has been sampled on songs. The lighters have been featured on album covers, tattooed on rockers’ skin, and wielded in Rolling Stone photo shoots.

In the 1960’s concert-goers began raising the lighter's flame as a salute to favorite performers, this gesture became known as the Zippo® Moment. 

Actor Bruce Willis famously used a Zippo lighter in the film, Die Hard

In 1962, Zippo produced its first non-lighter product, a steel pocket tape measure, or that had a design resembling the famous lighter. Other items have been added and deleted from the Zippo® line since then. Many of these have been geared to the promotional products division and included key chains, golf greenskeepers, pen-and-pencil sets and the ZipLight pocket flashlight.

A 1962 pocket measure carried the same repair guarantee as the lighter

During the 1970s, the company began expanding to overseas markets. In 2002, Zippo® obtained trademark registration for the shape of the lighter, a major milestone that helped to protect the brand from counterfeiters. 

Display of advertisements featuring the Zippo lighter

The 15,000-square-foot Zippo Museum opened in July 1997 and since then has hosted over 100,000 visitors annually. Collectors and tourists travel from throughout the U.S. and worldwide to tour the extensive exhibits which include:

• Zippo Rocks!, a collection of Zippo's role in music throughout the years.
• An Ally for the Allies, an exploration of Zippo's WW II contributions.
• The Greatest Supporting Actor of all Times, an illustration of each time a Zippo lighter has been in the Hollywood spotlight.
• It Works or We Fix It Free, a look inside Zippo's famous repair center.

Repair shop at Zippo Museum

Display of damaged lighters was outside museum repair shop

Company founder, George Blaisdell, who passed away in October 1978 at age 83, is remembered today for inventing the Zippo lighter, and also for his generosity. In the 1980s, the company was owned by six Blaisdell family members, including two daughters and their children. Today, grandson George B. Duke is the sole owner and Chairman of the Board of Zippo Manufacturing Company. 

Patrick is seated on a chair with a back made entirely of Zippo lighters

There's no charge to tour the museum, our 1 hour+ tour was self-guided. Stopping at this museum was an unexpected detour, but the displays were interesting and informative. They showed how a single product had integrated itself in lives through the years and still includes a lifetime guarantee. 

Friday Funnies

This display of Halloween blow-ups was spotted in a store

Today, October 31, marks the day when Halloween is celebrated here and many countries worldwide in some way. Some in the Western world, the US, Canada, Ireland and the UK, have extensive celebrations with costume parties, trick-or-treating, pranks and games.

  Maxine, resident Hudson Senior Center member, is dressed for Halloween

Halloween is celebrated in downtown Nashua, NH, with lamp pole scarecrows along Main Street. I took photos on a downtown walk this week, some of which are shown below.

Other countries have traditions similar to Halloween that focus on remembering the dead, but with unique cultural spins, like Mexico's Día de los Muertos. Most countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East, don’t celebrate Halloween because of religious or cultural reasons, also Iran and Russia which have restricted/banned celebrations.

Many residents of Clocktower Place apartments, our residence building, also display Halloween decorations which ranger from shelf size to larger-than-life size displays.

Some decorations include friendly-looking ghosts, akin to Casper the Friendly Ghost.

Other decorations have a more ominous theme, including the carnivorous pumpkin below.

On Halloween, it’s traditional to commemorate the dead in some Christian traditions. On our Portugal trip, we saw early Halloween decos notably at a hotel.  On November 1, All Saints' Day, Portuguese children go door-to-door with carved pumpkin lanterns asking for a soulmass cake. This small round cake, which resembles a shortbread biscuit, has spices like allspice, nutmeg, cinnamon or ginger as well as raisins or currants. Before baking, it's topped with the mark of a cross. Unfortunately, we left too early to sample one.

This year, Clocktower Place featured a pumpkin decorating competition with some unique entries. Residents will vote on the entries and the winning pumpkin will earn the resident a month of free garage parking.

There are 28 scarecrows placed along Main Street. While many are very original and creative, there are those that lack such features, which is why not all were shown in this post.

My particulate favorite for originality is this above scarecrow by the Nashua Transit System. It consists totally of transit system signage.

Full disclosure we don't decorate for Halloween only for Autumn with recycled annual decos. These will be changed only after Thanksgiving (a tradition from our childhood).

Your turn — Do you decorate for Halloween in any way? 

Enjoy Your Weekend, Everyone

Hope you all receive only 🎃 treats not tricks👻

We'll be setting back time ⏰ on Sunday, Nov 2

Home in Nashua, NH

We landed at Logan Airport, Boston, on Tuesday afternoon

Portugal was a whirlwind adventure and now we're back in Nashua, NH, catching up on things at home including sleep. 

All of the hotels included a breakfast buffet

Tours are not for the faint of heart and can be very exhausting with full tour days.. In order to see so many places in a limited time frame, it was necessary to change hotels several times and to spend hours on a tour bus.

A very large indoor farmer's market with produce, bakery items and fresh fish

Our group was a large one with 43 travelers. Our NH contingent consisted of 13, the largest group was from St, Louis, still other folks hailed from OH, NY and CO. Within a few days, we learned the first names of most other travelers and are hoping to keep in contact with a couple..

There were many monuments and historic sites to see

Also, visits to local artisans, like this pottery studio

A lot of photos were taken both with a digital camera and cell phone, so it will be a while before I go through and merge them and select ones to include in future posts. I'll also be creating a photo book as was done for previous trips.

Daytime temperatures ranged from the mid to higher 70s

Night time dining in outdoor cafes was  popular in every city

There will still be a couple of posts about our road trip to parts of PA which happened a couple of weeks before this adventure.

Colorful flowers were in every city visited

Thanks for all your well wishes in previous comments. I brought my iPad along amnd hoped to keep up on your blog posts. However, most days were so full that little free time was left for other than sleeping in the evenings, especially when dining in most cities visited started after 7 pm and ended after 9 pm. Internet service was also not as good as here at home and we turned off cellular data to avoid any charges. That said,  WhatsApp is how we kept in contact with family and friends while traveling as we can call and text over wi-fi, free of charge.

To be continued — more about our adventures to come in future posts. Travel is exciting for sure. While catching up takes a but of time, we’re thankful to be able to explore and learn and then to share with everyone. Thanks for coming along.

Friday Funnies

A recent Friday Funnies featured a doggie in a window — a car window, not in the pet shop window of the popular 1950s Patti Page song.

This post has another doggie in another window. He/she was seen napping in a second floor residence window on a recent walk in downtown Nashua, NH.

As we're on a(another) adventure, blog commenting will be sporadic depending on our location. We're on a tour in Portugal with our senior center group.

Thanks for your comments on the Kinzua viaduct, a number of folks commented that the height alone would make them wary of visiting this amazing sky walk. Surprisingly, while I'm not fond of heights, this one didn't seem that daunting. Yes, we would re-visit.

Enjoy Your Weekend, Everyone

We will be enjoying ours for sure

Far Away Now

That’s where we are this week and part of the upcoming week as we’re once again on an adventure This time to places farther away than the recent PA road trip. We’re part of a tour group from the senior center again, this time traveling in parts of Portugal.

As all of our far-away trips have been in recent years, this is a first-time to this country. As such, we’ll be visiting a number of cities and sites in a relatively short time and future posts will feature some highlights of this adventure. 

The 8th Wonder (Once)

A post earlier this week related our recent meet-up with blogger friends in PA. Linda and Bob were wonderful and very informative tour guides who introduced us to an amazing PA sight at Kinzua Bridge State Park. Spoiler Alert: This is a long post.

Admittedly, we are always interested in sites new-to-us and especially ones with a historical background. What we saw at this 339-acre Pennsylvania state park near Mt Jewett was amazing. We can understand why it was selected by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) and Bureau of Parks as one of 25 Must-See Pennsylvania State Parks. 

The park's highlight is the Kinzua Sky Walk extending 624 feet into the Kinzua Gorge featuring panoramic views. Once known as the Kinzua Viaduct, this engineering marvel was once the highest railway bridge in the world. Six of the bridge's 20 towers were taller than the Brooklyn Bridge. In 1977, it was listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. 

Although the state park name uses Kinzua Bridge, the original and correct name is Kinzua Viaduct, both terms are used interchangeably today. Kinzua Bridge became a common, widely accepted name among the general public rather than viaduct.. 

A major difference between the terms is purpose. While a bridge usually spans a single gap, like a river or roadway, a viaduct is a type of bridge comprised of various spans over uneven terrain with multiple supports to maintain a consistent, level grade. Since this structure included a railway across the Kinzua Creek Valley, Kinzua Viaduct is the more accurate and historical term that will be used herein. 

The Kinzua Sky Walk is the feature in Kinzua Bridge State Park

As for this post title, there's no actual Eighth wonder of the world; however, this designation was unofficially applied to the 1882 wrought iron Kinzua Viaduct which for 2 years held the record as the tallest railroad bridge in the world. Eight years later (1890), the bridge was dismantled and rebuilt with steel. It survived for over a century until the structure met the force of Mother Nature (details to follow).

The Back Story — construction, rebuilding, disaster, rebirth

Thomas Kane

In the 1880s, the half-mile wide and 300 feet deep, Kinzua Creek Valley stood in theway of commerce since the New York, Lake Erie and Western Coal Railway (NYLEW) needed to transport coal, lumber, oil and other resources to Buffalo's markets faster. The fastest way would be to build a bridge across the valley compared to putting down eight miles of track over rough terrain to carry trains loaded with the materials. Railroad president Thomas Kane urged investors to open their wallets to fund the construction of a bridge to transverse the gorge. Kane, who wheezed from a chronic lung condition and also had been injured in the Civil War, lived long enough to see his dream become reality.

1882 construction of the wrought iron Kinzua Viaduct and some of the workmen

Construction of the iron viaduct began in May 1881, staring with the placement of stone piers. It took 6 to 10 months to do the pier work with some months off for winter. Erection of the tubular iron began nearly a year later in May 1882. Amazingly, it was in completed in only 94 days. A work force of approximately 100 to 150 men placed 110 piers with over 1,552 tons of wrought iron at an estimated cost between $167,000 and $275,000 (back then). The viaduct was designed by Octave Chanute, a prominent civil engineer who advised early aviators including the Wright brothers.

Visitor center display of viaduct engineer Bonzano (L) and designer Chanute (R)

The bridge's 110 sandstone masonry piers were quarried from the hillside used for the foundation of the bridge. The original viaduct was 301 feet high, 2,053 feet long and weighed over 3,100,000 pounds. 

Phoenix column construction used for Kinzua Viaduct

Visitors' center exhibit explaining how viaduct was built

Engineer Adolphus Bonzano used a patented design called Phoenix Columns, lighter in weight with greater strength than cast iron columns of similar design. Because of the design of these columns, it was believed mistakenly that the bridge had been built with wooden poles. 

Erecting the original 1882 Kinzua Viaduct with a traveling crane

Bonzano determined that trains could safely cross the viaduct at 5 mph sending vibrations down the iron structure like a tuning fork. By 1893, the NYLE&W went bankrupt and merged with the Erie Railroad, the new owner of the viaduct. Less than 10 years later at the start of the 20th century, locomotives were 85 percent heavier and the iron bridge couldn't carry them safely. The decision was made to rebuild the entire structure with steel for both heavier locomotives and longer trains. 

Steel reconstruction of the Kinzua Viaduct in 1890 and some of the workmen

Rebuilt process from wrought iron to steel

In 1990, a crew from the Elmira Bridge Company dismantled the iron structure and rebuilt each tower with steel latticework. Working in 10-hour shifts, some 100 to 150 men completed the project in 105 days. The new steel viaduct had the same measurements and weighed nearly double the original at 6,706,000 pounds. Bolts used to hold the towers to the anchor blocks were re-used from the original bridge. This decision would eventually play a major role in the bridge's downfall.

Vintage photo showing train on steel rebuilt viaduct

Yet, despite this reconstruction, the train's speed limit remained 5 mph. As the bridge aged, heavy trains pulled by two steam locomotives had to stop so engines could cross the bridge one at a time. Lighter diesel locomotives didn't have that limit. 

Vintage postcard showing a train traveling the Kinzua Viaduct

The last steam locomotive in commercial service crossed on October 5, 1950, freight traffic ended in 1959 and the Erie Railroad (owner of the viaduct) sold it to a salvage company in Indiana, PA, for $76,000. When local citizens protested, the salvage company owner, who admired the extraordinary structure, worked with local support groups to save it and offered to sell it to the State of Pennsylvania. In August 1963, then Governor William Scranton signed a bill to purchase the viaduct and adjacent land for $50,000 to create Kinzua Bridge State Park. The viaduct received national recognition and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, an honor later rescinded.

A Knox and Kane steam locomotive on the Kinzua Viaduct before 2002

After freight traffic stopped, the Knox and Kane (K&K) Railroad purchased a portion of the Erie Railroad and in 1987 started steam rail trips across the viaduct from Knox to Kane, PA. The trip went through the Allegheny National Park and traveled on the viaduct before returning. 

But in June 2002, the viaduct was closed when an inspection by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) revealed it needed a full restoration. The fear was that high winds could cause a collapse. Trains again were barred from travel on the viaduct. The K&K railroad lost a major tourism draw so was affected severely. When it suspended operations in 2006, the PA salvage company that had bought the viaduct then resold it to the state, bought the tracks.

Worse news than the end of the excursion train came two months later. In August 2002, the viaduct was closed to all traffic, even pedestrians. In February 2003, an Ohio-based bridge construction and repair company started restoration. 

Aftermath of 2003 tornado shows towers torn from their bases

This was a short lived effort As construction workers were leaving the site in late afternoon July 21, 2003 — disaster hit as an tornado with wind speeds of 73-112 mph struck a side of the viaduct. The F-1 classified storm tore down 11 of 20 towers at the center of the bridge from their concrete bases toppling them to the valley floor. The tornado also snapped and uprooted nearby trees. There were no injuries or deaths reported. (I wondered if this was unusual PA weather. But, an online check showed that while the state averages 16 tornadoes per year mostly in May to July, these can occur year-round.)

Remember those bolts that were not replaced? 

A post-collapse inspection revealed that the 1882 wrought iron bridge had been replaced in 1900 with steel except for the anchor bolts. The anchor bolts holding the bases of the towers were badly rusted. An investigation determined that the viaduct swung back and forth several times before the base bolts failed due to fatigue. The century-old viaduct was destroyed in under a minute. 

Rusted and failed base bolts contributed to the collapse

Towers, which fell intact in sections and sustained impact damage, were left where they fell. The state of PA opted not to rebuild as the cost would have topped $45 million (then). Before the collapse, Kinzua Bridge State Park attracted over 200,000 visitors annually. A decision was made to transform the disaster into a visitor attraction to showcase both the history of the structure and the forces of nature.

Park visitors can hike down to view the collapsed towers left where they fell

As if the situation could not get worse, it did when in July 2004, the viaduct was removed from the National Register of Historic Places after the catastrophic collapse.

Railroad ties twisted after the tornado and currently with all tracks removed

This was because the 2003 disaster changed its physical integrity and it didn't exist as the historic entity for which it had been recognized earlier. The viaduct's removal from the listing wasn't a punitive delisting but caused by its destruction.

But, there was also good news too. In June 2005, the State of Pennsylvania released $700,000 to design repairs on the remaining towers and reinvent the viaduct as the Kinzua Sky Walk. The state's Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) put forward another proposal to add an observation deck and visitors' center. 

View below Kinzua Sky Walk

This plan allowed access to a remaining portion of the viaduct with a hiking trail for views of the fallen towers. The Kinzua Sky Walk cost $4.3 million and opened in September 2011. A tourism expert estimated it could bring in over $11 million in annual revenue. The area benefits from visitor spending on food, lodging and other activities. Admission to the visitors' center, sky walk and park are free. 

Lower observation deck of Kinzua Sky Walk

On the Kinzua Sky Walk, visitors walk 600 feet onto the remaining support towers of the former Kinzua Viaduct. The pedestrian walkway is on six restored original towers, yes with new anchor bolts. The 225-foot high observation deck offers a view of Kinzua Creek Valley with 11 twisted and scattered towers at the bottom. The railroad tracks have been removed from the deck. The walkway ends at an overlook with a partial glass floor. Unfortunately, at the time of our visit, a catwalk had been installed for crews to access the underside of the sky walk. The view was obstructed and we couldn't see the ground 225 feet below; maybe another time.

Picture taking platform under the skywalk provides a 3D effect

Highly recommended is the picture taking platform under the sky walk where visitors and photograph themselves and the remaining support towers. The view resembles a 3D effect, similar to the pre-tower collapse.

Front entry of Kinzua Bridge State Park visitors' center

The Visitors Center is accessed at the edge of Kinzua Gorge. Huge steel towers flank the doorway. The building features two exhibit halls with displays showcasing the three E’s – Engineering, Energy and the Environment. 

If you're ever in the vicinity of Mt Jewett, PA, we would highly recommend going out of your way, if necessary, to find and explore this amazing structure. That said, there's limited time to do so in 2025. The Kinzua Sky Walk will close October 31 after its temporary reopening for fall foliage season. The walkway is closed for a multi-year rehabilitation. The next reopening will be fall 2026 if you want to plan ahead..

Even if the viaduct wasn't an actual wonder of the world, the fact that original construction took 3 months, reconstruction took just a half month longer and that it stood for over 121 years since originally built — is amazing. Our thanks to Linda and Bob for introducing us to what we consider a true wonder, even if it's not on the books as such.

View down from the sky walk

On the other hand, if you have a fear of heights, it might be best not to look down over the side, just look straight ahead.

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Aside from photos taken during our visit, all vintage photos used to showcase the Kinzua Viaduct before, during and after restoration were obtained from online sources. These have been used solely for the purpose of documentation. I am grateful for all the sources.